Gender equality A generic symbol for gender equality Gender equality, also known as sex equality,gender egalitarianism, sexual equality, orequality of the genders, is the view that everyone should receive equal treatment and not be discriminated against based on their gender.[1] This is one of the objectives of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which seeks to create equality in law and in social situations, such as indemocratic activities and securing equal pay for equal work. In practice, the objective of gender equality is for people to acquire, if they so choose, equal treatment throughout a society, not just in politics, the workplace, or any other policy-designated sphere. To avoid complication, genders besides women and men will not be treated in this article. History Gender biasesEdit There has been criticism from some feminists towards the political discourse and policies employed in order to achieve the above items of "progress" in gender equality, with critics arguing that these gender equality strategies are superficial, in that they do not seek to challenge social structures of male domination, and only aim at improving the situation of women within the societal framework of subordination of women to men,[23] and that official public policies (such as sate policies or international bodies policies) are questionable, as they are applied in a patriarchal context, and are directly or indirectly controlled by agents of the male dominated system.[24] One of the criticisms of the gender equality policies, in particular those of the European Union, is that they disproportionately focus on policies integrating women in public life, but do not seek to genuinely address the deep private sphere oppression.[25] A further criticism is that a focus on the situation of women in non-Western countries, while often ignoring the issues that exist in the West, is a form of imperialism and of reinforcing Western moral superiority; and a way of "othering" of domestic violence, by presenting it as something specific to outsiders - the "violent others" - and not to the allegedly progressive Western cultures.[26]These critics point out that women in Western countries often face similar problems, such as domestic violence and rape, as in other parts of the world.[27] They also cite the fact that women faced de jure legal discrimination until just a few decades ago; for instance, in some Western countries such as Switzerland, Greece, Spain, and France, women obtained equal rights in family law in the 1980s.[28][29][30][31] Another criticism is that there is a selective public discourse with regard to different types of oppression of women, with some forms of violence such ashonor killings (most common in certain geographic regions such as parts of Asia and North Africa) being frequently the object of public debate, while other forms of violence, such as the lenient punishment for crimes of passion across Latin America, do not receive the same attention in the West.[32] In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, pointed out that "crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived [in those relevant parts of the world] as excusable or understandable".[32] It is also argued that the criticism of particular laws of many developing countries ignores the influence of colonialism on those legal systems, especially of the French Napoleonic Code,[33] which was extremely powerful in its influence over the world (historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world[34]) and which designated married women a subordinate role, and provided for leniency with regard to 'crimes of passion' (which was the case in France until 1975[35]). Efforts to fight inequalityEdit See also: Gender inequality World bodies have defined gender equality in terms of human rights, especially women's rights, and economic development.[36][37]UNICEF describes that gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."[38] UNFPA stated that, "despite many international agreements affirming their human rights, women are still much more likely than men to be poor and illiterate. They have less access to property ownership, credit, training and employment. They are far less likely than men to be politically active and far more likely to be victims of domestic violence."[39] Thus, promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater economic prosperity.[36] For example, nations of theArab world that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 United Nations-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, learning and culture.[40]That is, Western bodies are less likely to conduct commerce with nations in the Middle East that retain culturally accepted attitudes towards the status and function of women in their society in an effort to force them to change their beliefs in the face of relatively underdeveloped economies. In 2010, the European Union opened theEuropean Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) in Vilnius, Lithuania to promote gender equality and to fight sex discrimination. Gender equality is part of the national curriculum in Great Britain and many other European countries. Personal, Social and Health Education, religious studies andLanguage acquisition curricula tend to address gender equality issues as a very serious topic for discussion and analysis of its effect in society. A large and growing body of research has shown how gender inequality undermines health and development. To overcome gender inequality the United Nations Population Fundstates that, "Women's empowerment and gender equality requires strategic interventions at all levels of programming and policy-making. These levels include reproductive health, economic empowerment, educational empowerment and political empowerment."[41] UNFPA says that "research has also demonstrated how working with men and boys as well as women and girls to promote gender equality contributes to achieving health and development outcomes."[41] Violence against womenEdit Acid attack victim in Cambodia Anti-FGM road sign, Bakau, Gambia, 2005 Main article: Violence against women Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly becausethey are women, or as a result of patriarchal gender constructs. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Womendefines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life" and states that:[42] "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men" According to some theories, violence against women is often caused by the acceptance of violence by various cultural groups as a means of conflict resolution within intimate relationships. Studies on IPV victimization among ethnic minorities in the United Studies have consistently revealed that immigrants are a high-risk group for intimate violence.[43][44] Forms of violence against women includesexual violence (including war rape, marital rape and child sexual abuse, the latter often in the context of child marriage), domestic violence, forced marriage, female genital mutilation, forced prostitution, sex trafficking,honor killings, dowry killings, acid attacks,stoning, flogging, forced sterilization, forced abortion, violence related to accusations ofwitchcraft, mistreatment of widows (e.g.widow inheritance). Fighting against violence against women is considered a key issues for achieving gender equality. The Council of Europe adopted the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention). In Western countries which are overall safe (i.e. where gang murders, armed kidnappings, civil unrest, and other similar acts are rare) the vast majority of murdered women are killed by partners/ex-partners: as of 2004-2009, former and current partners were responsible for more than 80% of all cases ofmurders of women in Cyprus, France, andPortugal.[45] By contrast, in countries with a high level of organized criminal activity and gang violence murders of women are more likely to occur in a public sphere, often in a general climate of indifference and impunity.[45] In addition, many countries do not have adequate comprehensive data collection on such murders, aggravating the problem.[45] In some parts of the world, various forms of violence against women are tolerated and accepted as parts of everyday life; according to UNFPA:[46] "In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women - such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths - are condoned as being part of the natural order of things." In most countries, it is only in recent decades that violence against women (in particular when committed in the family) has received significant legal attention. The Istanbul Convention acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring, de jure orde facto, this form of violence. In itsexplanatory report at para 219, it states: "There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in a relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator."[47] In Opuz v Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights recognized violence against women as a form discrimination against women,[48] para 200: "[T]he Court considers that the violence suffered by the applicant and her mother may be regarded as gender-based violence which is a form of discrimination against women."[49] This is also the position of the Istanbul Convention which reads: "Article 3 – Definitions, For the purpose of this Convention: a "violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women [...]".[50] In some cultures, acts of violence against women are seen as crimes against the male 'owners' of the woman, such as husband, father or male relatives, rather the woman herself. This leads to practices where men inflict violence upon women in order to get revenge on male members of the women's family. Such practices include payback rape, a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the Pacific Islands, which consists of the rape of a female, usually by a group of several males, as revenge for acts committed by members of her family, such as her father or brothers, with the rape being meant to humiliate the father or brothers, as punishment for their prior behavior towards the perpetrators.[51][52] Reproductive and sexual health and rightsEdit Main articles: Reproductive health and Reproductive rights Further information: Forced sterilization, Forced pregnancy, and Forced abortion Global maternal mortality rate per 100 000 live births, (2010)[53] In 2010, Sierra Leone launched free healthcare for pregnant and breastfeeding women A wall along a residential lane inGuangzhou, China with family planning posters stressing the importance of balanced sex-ratios, in order to prevent sex-selective abortion The importance of women having the right and possibility to have control over their body, reproduction decisions and sexuality, and the need for gender equality in order to achieve these goals are recognized as crucial by theFourth World Conference on Women in Beijing and the UN International Conference on Population and Development Program of Action. The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that promotion of gender equality is crucial in the fight against HIV/AIDS.[54] Maternal mortality is a major problem in many parts of the world. UNFPA states that countries have an obligation to protect women's right to health, but many countries do not do that.[55] Maternal mortality is considered today not just an issue of development but also an issue of human rights.[55] UNFPA says that, "since 1990, the world has seen a 45 per cent decline in maternal mortality – an enormous achievement. But in spite of these gains, almost 800 women still die every day from causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. This is about one woman every two minutes."[56]According to UNFPA:[57] "Preventable maternal mortality occurs where there is a failure to give effect to the rights of women to health, equality and non-discrimination. Preventable maternal mortality also often represents a violation of a woman’s right to life." The right to reproductive and sexual autonomy is denied to women in many parts of the world, through practices such as forced sterilization, forced/coerced sexual partnering (e.g. forced marriage, child marriage), criminalization of consensual sexual acts (such as sex outside marriage), lack of criminalization of marital rape, violence in regard to the choice of partner (honor killingsas punishment for 'inappropriate' relations). Amnesty International’s Secretary General has stated that: "It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."[58] All these practices infringe on the right of achieving reproductive and sexual health. High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillayhas called for full respect and recognition of women's autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, stating:[59] "Violations of women's human rights are often linked to their sexuality and reproductive role. Women are frequently treated as property, they are sold into marriage, into trafficking, into sexual slavery. Violence against women frequently takes the form of sexual violence. Victims of such violence are often accused of promiscuity and held responsible for their fate, while infertile women are rejected by husbands, families and communities. In many countries, married women may not refuse to have sexual relations with their husbands, and often have no say in whether they use contraception." Adolescent girls are at the highest risk of sexual coercion, sexual ill health, and negative reproductive outcomes. The risks they face are higher than those of boys and men; this increased risk is partly due to gender inequity (different socialization of boys and girls, gender based violence, child marriage) and partly due to biological factors (females' risk of acquiring sexually transmitted infections during unprotected sexual relations is two to four times that of males').[60] Socialization within rigid gender constructs often creates an environment where sexual violence is common; according to the WHO: "Sexual violence is also more likely to occur where beliefs in male sexual entitlement are strong, where gender roles are more rigid, and in countries experiencing high rates of other types of violence."[61] The sexual health of women is often poor in societies where a woman's right to control her sexuality is not recognized. Richard A. Posner writes that "Traditionally, rape was the offense of depriving a father or husband of a valuable asset — his wife's chastity or his daughter's virginity".[62] Historically, rape was seen in many cultures (and is still seen today in some societies) as a crime against the honor of the family, rather than against the self-determination of the woman. As a result, victims of rape may face violence, in extreme cases even honor killings, at the hands of their family members.[63][64] Catharine MacKinnonargues that in male dominated societies, sexual intercourse is imposed on women in a coercive and unequal way, creating a continuum of victimization, where women have few positive sexual experiences; she writes "To know what is wrong with rape, know what is right about sex. If this, in turn, is difficult, the difficulty is as instructive as the difficulty men have in telling the difference when women see one. Perhaps the wrong of rape has proved so difficult to define because the unquestionable starting point has been that rape is defined as distinct from intercourse, while for women it is difficult to distinguish the two under conditions of male dominance."[65] One of the challenges of dealing with sexual violence is that in many societies women are perceived as being readily available for sex, and men are seen as entitled to their bodies, until and unless women object. Rebecca Cook wrote in Submission of Interights to the European Court of Human Rights in the case ofM.C. v. Bulgaria, 12 April 2003:[66][67] "The equality approach starts by examining not whether the woman said 'no', but whether she said 'yes'. Women do not walk around in a state of constant consent to sexual activity unless and until they say 'no', or offer resistance to anyone who targets them for sexual activity. The right to physical and sexual autonomy means that they have to affirmatively consent to sexual activity." Freedom of movementEdit Women in Afghanistan wearingburqas. Some clothes that women are required, by law or custom, to wear, can restrict their movements A woman of the Haredi burqa sect(utra-Ortodox Jewish) in Meah Shearim, Israel Further information: Freedom of movement The degree to which women can participate (in law and in practice) in public life varies and has varied by culture, historical era, social class and other other socioeconomic characteristics. Seclusion of women within the home was a common practise among theupper classes of many societies, and this still remains the case today in some societies. Before the 20th century is was also common in parts of Southern Europe, such as much of Spain. [68] Women's freedom of movement continues to be legally restricted in some parts of the world. This restriction is often due to marriage laws. For instance, in Yemen, marriage regulations stipulate that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[69] In some countries, women must legally be accompanied by their male guardians (such as the husband or male relative) when they leave home.[70] The CEDAW states at Article 15 (4) that:[71] Article 15"4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile." In addition to laws, women's freedom of movement is also restricted by social and religious norms - for example purdah, a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim communities in Afghanistan and Pakistan as well as upper-caste Hindus in Northern India, such as the Rajputs, which often leads to the minimizing of the movement of women in public spaces and restrictions on their social and professional interactions;[72] or namus, a cultural concept strongly related to family honor. The custom of bride price can also curtail the free movement of women: if a wife wants to leave her husband, he may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back, making it difficult for women to move out of violent husbands' homes.[73][74][75] Restrictions on freedom of movement also exist due to traditional practices such asbaad, swara, or vani, common especially among Pashtun tribes in Pakistan and Afghanistan, whereby a girl is given from one family to another (often though a marriage), in order to settle the disputes and feuds between the families. The girl, who now belongs to the second family, has very little autonomy and freedom, her role being to serve the new family.[76][77][78][79][80] Gendered arrangements of work and careEdit Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care and the male breadwinner role. Policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers as a tool of changing gender relations.[81] Shared earning/shared parenting marriage, that is, a relationship where the partners collaborate at sharing their responsibilities inside and outside of the home, is often encouraged in Western countries.[82] Western countries with a strong emphasis on women fulfilling the role of homemakers, rather than a professional role, include parts of German speaking Europe - parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland; as well as the Netherlands and Ireland. In 2011, Jose Manuel Barroso, then president of theEuropean Commission, stated "Germany, but also Austria and the Netherlands, should look at the example of the northern countries [...] that means removing obstacles for women, older workers, foreigners and low-skilled job-seekers to get into the workforce".[83] The Netherlands and Ireland are among the last Western countries to accept women as professionals; despite the Netherlands having an image as progressive on gender issues, women in the Netherlands work less in paid employment than women in other comparable Western countries. In the early 1980s, the Commission of the European Communitiesreport Women in the European Community, found that the Netherlands and Ireland had the lowest labour particupation of married women and the most public disapproval of it.[84] In Ireland, until 1973, there was amarriage bar.[85] In the Netherlands, from the 1990s onwards, the numbers of women entering the workplace have increased, but with most of the women working part time. As of 2014, the Netherlands and Switzerland were the only OECD members where most employed women worked part-time,[86] while in the United Kingdom, women made up two thirds of workers on long term sick leave, despite making up only half of the workforce and even after excluding maternity leave.[87] A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of maternity rights and reproductive rights of women.[88]Different countries have different rules regarding maternity leave, paternity leave and parental leave. In the European Union (EU) the policies vary significantly by country, but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the Pregnant Workers Directiveand Parental Leave Directive.[89] Another important issue refers to ensuring that employed women are not de jure or de factoprevented from having a child. For example, some countries have enacted legislation explicitly outlawing or restricting what they view as abusive clauses in employment contracts regarding reproductive rights (for example clauses which stipulate that a woman cannot get pregnant during a specified time) rendering such contracts voidor voidable.[90] In some countries, employers who request women to sign formal or informal documents stipulating that they will not get pregnant face legal punishment.[91]Women often face severe violations of their reproductive rights at the hands of their employers; and the International Labour Organization classifies forced abortioncoerced by the employer as labour exploitation.[92] Being the victim of a forced abortion compelled by the employer was ruled a ground of obtaining political asylum in the US.[93] Other abuses include routine virginity tests of unmarried employed women.[94][95] Girls' access to educationEdit School girls in Gaza Strip Main articles: Female education and Gender and education In many parts of the world, girls' access to education is very restricted. In developing parts of the world women are often denied opportunities for education as girls and women face many obstacles that include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms.[96][97][98] According to OHCHR, there have been multiple attacks on schools worldwide during the period 2009-2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education".[99] The United Nations Population Fund says:[100] "About two thirds of the world's illiterateadults are women. Lack of an education severely restricts a woman's access to information and opportunities. Conversely, increasing women's and girls' educational attainment benefits both individuals and future generations. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for their children." Political participation of womenEdit Main article: Women in government A world map showing countries governmental participation by women, 2010. Headquarters of the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage, United States, early 20th century Women are underrepresented in most countries' National Parliaments.[101] The 2011 UN General Assembly resolution on women’s political participation called for female participation in politics, and expressed concern about the fact that "women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the political sphere".[102]The Council of Europe states that:[103] "Pluralist democracy requires balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making. Council of Europe standards provide clear guidance on how to achieve this." Institutions also play an essential role in achieving and enforcing gender equality. However, basic legal and human rights, access to and the control of resources, employment and earnings and social and political participation are still not guaranteed in many social and legal institutions. For example, only 22 per cent of parliamentarians globally are women and therefore, men continue to occupy most positions of political and legal authority.[39] As of November 2014, women accounted for 28% of members of the single or lower houses of parliaments in theEuropean Union member states.[104] In some Western countries women have only recently obtained the right to vote, notably inSwitzerland, where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;[105] but in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland.[106] In Liechtenstein, women were given the right to vote by the women's suffrage referendum of 1984. Three prior referendums held in 1968, 1971 and 1973 had failed to secure women's right to vote. Economic empowerment of womenEdit Main articles: Women in the workforce, Female economic activity, and Gender-based price discrimination Gender pay gap in average gross hourly earnings in the EU member states, according to Eurostat2014.[107] Female economic activity is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.UN Women states that: "Investing in women’s economic empowerment sets a direct path towards gender equality, poverty eradication and inclusive economic growth."[108] Gender discrimination often results in women ending in insecure, low-wage jobs, and being disproportionately affected by poverty, discrimination and exploitation.[108] The UN Population Fund says that, "Six out of 10 of the world’s poorest people are women. Economic disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on the shoulders of women, and because women continue to face discrimination in the economic sphere."[39] Gender biases also exist in product and service provision. [109] The term "Women's Tax", also known as "Pink Tax", refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. Gender-based price discriminationinvolves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the "pink tax" of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image.[110] For example, studies have shown that women are charged more for services especially tailoring, hair cutting and laundering.[109] A growing body of research documents what works to economically empower women, from providing access to formal financial services to training on agricultural and business management practices, though more research is needed across a variety of contexts to confirm the effectiveness of these interventions.[111] Marriage, divorce and property laws and regulationsEdit Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. CEDAW has called for the end of discriminatory family laws.[112] In 2013, UNWomen stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".[113] The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.John Stuart Mill, in The Subjection of Women(1869) compared marriage to slavery and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."[114] In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".[115] Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through marriage laws giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through marriage bars. In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;[116] while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.[117] In Austria, the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.[118] Switzerland was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a referendum, who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).[119][120][121][122] In the Netherlands, although the legal incapacity of a married woman was abolished in 1956, the marriage bar for women civil servants being lifted in 1957, it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved - prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband's opinion prevailed over the wife's regarding issues such as decisions on children's education and the domicile of the family.[123][124][125] In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law.[126] In the United States, the wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of Kirchberg v. Feenstra, 450 U.S.455 (1981), a United States Supreme Courtcase in which the Court held a Louisiana Head and Master law, which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.[127] There have been and sometimes continue to be unequal treatment of married women in various aspects of everyday life. For example, in Australia, until 1983 a husband had to authorise the application by a married woman for a passport.[128] Other practices have included, and in many countries continue to include, a requirement for a husband's consent for an application for bank loans and credit cards by a married woman, as well as restrictions on the wife's reproductive rights, such as a requirement that the husband consents to the wife's acquiring ofcontraception or having an abortion.[129][130] In some places, although the law itself no longer requires the consent of the husband for various actions taken by the wife, the practice continues de facto, with the authorization of the husband being asked in practice.[131] Although dowry is today associated withSouth Asia, the practice has been common until the mid-20th century in parts ofSoutheast Europe. For example, in Greecedowry was removed from family law only in 1983 through legal changes which reformed marriage law and provided gender equality in marriage.[132][133] These changes also dealt with the practice of women changing their surnames to that of the husbands upon getting married, a practice which has been outlawed or restricted in some jurisdictions, because it is seen as contrary to women's rights. As such, women in Greece are required to keep their birth names for their whole life.[134] Laws regulating marriage and divorce continue to discriminate against women in many countries. For example, in Yemen, marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[69] In Iraq husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives, with paragraph 41 of the criminal code stating that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right. Examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".[135] In the 1990s and the 21st century there has been progress in many countries in Africa: for instance in Namibia the marital power of the husband was abolished in 1996 by the Married Persons Equality Act; in Botswana it was abolished in 2004 by the Abolition of Marital Power Act; and in Lesotho it was abolished in 2006 by theMarried Persons Equality Act.[136] Violence and mistreatment of women in relation to marriage has come to international attention during the past decades. This includes both violence committed inside marriage (domestic violence) as well as violence related to marriage customs and traditions (such as dowry, bride price, forced marriage and child marriage). Violence against a wife continues to be seen as legally acceptable in some countries; for instance in 2010, the United Arab Emirates's Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks.[137]The criminalization of adultery has been criticized as being a prohibition, which, in law or in practice, is used primarily against women; and incites violence against women (crimes of passion, honor killings). A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice in 2012 stated:[138] "the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women." UN Women also stated that "Drafters should repeal any criminal offenses related to adultery or extramarital sex between consenting adults".[139] Investigation and prosecution of crimes against women and girlsEdit Human rights organizations have expressed concern about the legal impunity of perpetrators of crimes against women, with such crimes being often ignored by authorities.[140] This is especially the case with murders of women in Latin America.[141][142][143] In particular, there is impunity in regard to domestic violence. High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, has stated on domestic violence against women:[144] "The reality for most victims, including victims of honor killings, is that state institutions fail them and that most perpetrators of domestic violence can rely on a culture of impunity for the acts they commit – acts which would often be considered as crimes, and be punished as such, if they were committed against strangers." Women are often, in law or in practice, unable to access legal institutions. UNWomen has said that, "Too often, justice institutions, including the police and the courts, deny women justice".[145] Often, women are denied legal recourse because the state institutions themselves are structured and operate in ways incompatible with genuine justice for women who experience violence - according to Amnesty International, "Women who are victims of gender-related violence often have little recourse because many state agencies are themselves guilty of gender bias and discriminatory practices."[146] Gender stereotypesEdit 1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers, based on the stereotype that women can't drive well. Features Bettie Page. Further information: Gender role Gender stereotypes arise from the socially approved roles of women and men in the private or public sphere, at home or in the workplace. In the household, women are typically seen as mother figures, which usually places them into a typical classification of being "supportive" or "nurturing", while their male counterparts are seen as being "assertive" or "ambitious". [147]Due to these views and expectations, women often face discrimination in the public sphere, such as the workplace. [148] A gender role is a set of societal normsdictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are exceptions and variations. The Istanbul Convention contains a definition of "gender", stating that: "“gender” shall mean the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men". (Article 3–Definitions (c))[149] Harmful traditional practicesEdit Anti-dowry poster in Bangalore, India Prevalence of FGM by country, according to a 2013 UNICEF report[150] "Harmful traditional practices" refer to forms of violence which are committed in certain communities often enough to become cultural practice, and accepted for that reason. Young women are the main victims of such acts, although men can be affected.[151] They occur in an environment where women and girls have unequal rights and opportunities.[152]These practices include, according to theOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights:[152] "female genital mutilation (FGM); forced feeding of women; early marriage; the various taboos or practices which prevent women from controlling their own fertility; nutritional taboos and traditional birth practices; son preference and its implications for the status of the girl child; female infanticide; early pregnancy; and dowry price" Female genital mutilation is defined as "procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons".[153] An estimated 125 million women and girls living today have undergone FGM in the 29 countries where data exist. Of these, about half live in two countries, Egypt and Ethiopia.[154] It is most commonly carried out on girls between infancy and 15 years old.[151] UNFPA and UNICEF state that, "In every society where it is practiced, FGM is a manifestation of deeply entrenched gender inequality. It persists for many reasons. In some societies, for example, it is considered a rite of passage. In others, it is seen as a prerequisite for marriage. In some communities, whether Christian, Jewish, Muslim, the practice may even be attributed to religious beliefs. Because FGM may be considered an important part of a culture or identity, it can be difficult for families to decide against having their daughters cut. People who reject the practice may face condemnation or ostracism. Even parents who do not want their daughters to undergo FGM may feel compelled to participate in the practice."[155] Son preference refers to a cultural preference for sons over daughters, and manifests itself through practices such as sex selective abortion; female infanticide; or abandonment, neglect or abuse of girl-children.[152] Early marriage, child marriage or forced marriage is prevalent in parts of Asia and Africa. The majority of victims seeking advice are female and aged between 18 and 23.[151]Such marriages can have harmful effects on a girl's education and development, and may expose girls to social isolation or abuse.[152][156][157] The 2013 UN Resolution on Child, Early and Forced Marriage calls for an end to the practice, and states that "Recognizing that child, early and forced marriage is a harmful practice that violates abuses, or impairs human rights and is linked to and perpetuates other harmful practices and human rights violations, that these violations have a disproportionately negative impact on women and girls [...]".[158] Despite a near-universal commitment by governments to end child marriage, "one in three girls in developing countries (excluding China) will probably be married before they are 18."[159] UNFPA states that, "over 67 million women 20-24 year old in 2010 had been married as girls. Half were in Asia, one-fifth in Africa. In the next decade 14.2 million girls under 18 will be married every year; this translates into 39,000 girls married each day. This will rise to an average of 15.1 million girls a year, starting in 2021 until 2030, if present trends continue."[159] Abuses regarding nutrition are taboos in regard to certain foods, which result in poor nutrition of women, and may endanger their health, especially if pregnant.[152] Women's ability to control their fertility is often reduced. For instance, in northern Ghana, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control face threats, violence and reprisals.[160] Births in parts of Africa are often attended by traditional birth attendants (TBAs), who sometimes perform rituals that are dangerous to the health of the mother. In many societies, a difficult labour is believed to be a divine punishment for marital infidelity, and such women face abuse and are pressured to "confess" to the infidelity.[152]The custom of bride price has been criticized as contributing to the mistreatment of women in marriage, and preventing them from leaving abusive marriages. UN Women recommended its abolition, and stated that: "Legislation should [...] State that divorce shall not be contingent upon the return of bride price but such provisions shall not be interpreted to limit women’s right to divorce; State that a perpetrator of domestic violence, including marital rape, cannot use the fact that he paid bride price as a defence to a domestic violence charge."[51] The caste system in India which leads tountouchability (the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream society) often interacts with gender discrimination, leading to a double discrimination faced by Dalit women.[161] In a 2014 survey, 27% of Indians admitted to practicing untouchability.[162] Tribal traditions can be harmful to males; for instance, the Satere-Mawe tribe use bullet ants as an initiation rite. Men must wear gloves with hundreds of bullet ants woven in for ten minutes: the ants' stings cause severe pain and paralysis. This experience must be completed twenty times for boys to be considered "warriors".[163] Other harmful traditional practices includemarriage by abduction, ritualized sexual slavery (Devadasi, Trokosi), breast ironing andwidow inheritance.[164][165][166][167] Portrayal of women in the mediaEdit Main article: Exploitation of women in mass media The way women are represented in the media has been criticized as interfering with the aim of achieving gender equality by perpetuating negative gender stereotypes. The exploitation of women in mass media refers to the criticisms that are levied against the use or portrayal of women in the mass media, when such use or portrayal aims at increasing the appeal of media or a product, to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. Concerns include the fact that the media has the power to shape the population's perceptions and to influence ideas, and therefore the sexist portrayals of women in the media may impact on how society sees and treats women in real life.[168] One common criticism of the way women are represented in the media is that the media reinforces stereotypical societal views of "what women are for", by portraying women either as submissive housewives or as sex objects.[169] According to a study, the way women are often portrayed by the media can lead to: "Women of average or normal appearance feeling inadequate or less beautiful in comparison to the overwhelming use of extraordinarily attractive women"; "Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence"; "Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave"; "Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, bulimia and so on"; "The importance of physical appearance is emphasized and reinforced early in most girls' development." Studies have found that nearly half of females ages 6–8 have stated that they want to be slimmer. (Striegel-Moore & Franko, 2002)".[170] HealthEdit Further information: Gender disparities in health Social constructs of gender (that is, cultural ideals of socially acceptable masculinity andfemininity) often have a negative effect on health. The WHO cites the example of women not being allowed to travel alone outside the home (to go to the hospital), and women being prevented by cultural norms to ask their husbands to use a condom, in cultures which simultaneously encourage male promiscuity, as social norms that harm women's health. Teenage boys suffering accidents due to social expectations of impressing their peers through risk taking, and men dying at much higher rate from lung cancer due to smoking, in cultures which link smoking to masculinity, are cited by the WHO as examples of gender norms negatively affecting men's health.[171]The WHO has also stated that there is a strong connection between gender socialization and transmission and lack of adequate management of HIV/AIDS.[54] Informing women of their rightsEdit While in many countries, the problem lies in the lack of adequate legislation, in others the principal problem is not as much the lack of a legal framework, but the fact that most women do not know their legal rights. This is especially the case as many of the laws dealing with women's rights are of recent date. This lack of knowledge enables to abusers to lead the victims (explicitly or implicitly) to believe that their abuse is within their rights. This may apply to a wide range of abuses, ranging from domestic violence to employment discrimination.[172][173] The United Nations Development Programme states that, in order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access legal systems".[174] The 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states at Art. 4 (d) [...] "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms".[175] Enacting protective legislation against violence has little effect, if women do not know how to use it: for example a study of Bedouin women in Israel found that 60% did not know what arestraining order was;[176] or if they don't know what acts are illegal: a report by Amnesty International showed in Hungary, in a public opinion poll of nearly 1,200 people in 2006, a total of 62% did not know that marital rape was an illegal (it was outlawed in 1997) and therefore the crime was rarely reported.[177][178] Ensuring women have a minim understanding of health issues is also important: lack of access to reliable medical information and available medical procedures to which they are entitled hurts women's health.[179] Gender mainstreamingEdit Main article: Gender mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming is the public policy of assessing the different implications for women and men of any planned policy action, including legislation and programmes, in all areas and levels, with the aim of achieving gender equality.[180][181] The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya. The idea has been developed in the United Nations development community.[182] Gender mainstreaming "involves ensuring that gender perspectives and attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities".[183] According to the Council of Europe definition: "Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organization, improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-making."[103] An integrated gender mainstreaming approach is "the attempt to form alliances and common platforms that bring together the power of faith and gender-equality aspirations to advance human rights."[184] For example, "in Azerbaijan, UNFPA conducted a study on gender equality by comparing the text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women with some widely recognized Islamic references and resources. The results reflect the parallels between the Convention and many tenets of Islamic scripture and practice. The study showcased specific issues, including VAW, child marriage, respect for the dignity of women, and equality in the economic and political participation of women. The study was later used to produce training materials geared towards sensitizing religious leaders."[184]
Friday 28 October 2016
Thursday 6 October 2016
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
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Emergency management
Disaster management (or emergency management) is the creation of plans through which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters.[1][2] Disaster management does not avert or eliminate the threats; instead, it focuses on creating plans to decrease the effect of disasters. Failure to create a plan could lead to human mortality, lost revenue, and damage to assets. Currently in the United States 60 percent of businesses do not have emergency management plans. Events covered by disaster management include acts of terrorism, industrial sabotage,fire,natural disasters (such as earthquakes,hurricanes, etc.), public disorder, industrial accidents, and communication failures.
Emergency planning idealsEdit
If possible, emergency planning should aim to prevent emergencies from occurring, and failing that, should develop a good action plan to mitigate the results and effects of any emergencies. As time goes on, and more data becomes available, usually through the study of emergencies as they occur, a plan should evolve. The development of emergency plans is a cyclical process, common to many risk management disciplines, such as Business Continuity and Security Risk Management, as set out below:
Recognition or identification of risksRanking or evaluation of risksResponding to significant risksTolerateTreatTransferTerminateResourcing controlsReaction PlanningReporting & monitoring risk performanceReviewing the Risk Management framework
There are a number of guidelines and publications regarding Emergency Planning, published by various professional organizations such as ASIS, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and the International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM). There are very few Emergency Management specific standards, and emergency management as a discipline tends to fall under business resilience standards.
In order to avoid, or reduce significant losses to a business, emergency managers should work to identify and anticipate potential risks, hopefully to reduce their probability of occurring. In the event that an emergency does occur, managers should have a plan prepared to mitigate the effects of that emergency, as well as to ensure Business Continuity of critical operations post-incident. It is essential for an organisation to include procedures for determining whether an emergency situation has occurred and at what point an emergency management plan should be activated.
Implementation idealsEdit
An emergency plan must be regularly maintained, in a structured and methodical manner, to ensure it is up-to-date in the event of an emergency. Emergency managers generally follow a common process to anticipate, assess, prevent, prepare, respond and recover from an incident.
Pre-incident training and testingEdit
A team of emergency responders performs a training scenario involvinganthrax.
Emergency management plans and procedures should include the identification of appropriately trained staff members responsible for decision-making when an emergency occurs. Training plans should include internal people, contractors and civil protection partners, and should state the nature and frequency of training and testing.
Testing of a plan's effectiveness should occur regularly. In instances where several business or organisations occupy the same space, joint emergency plans, formally agreed to by all parties, should be put into place.
Communicating and incident assessmentEdit
Communication is one of the key issues during any emergency, pre-planning of communications is critical. Miscommunication can easily result in emergency events escalating unnecessarily.
Once an emergency has been identified a comprehensive assessment evaluating the level of impact and its financial implications should be undertaken. Following assessment, the appropriate plan or response to be activated will depend on a specific pre-set criteria within the emergency plan. The steps necessary should be prioritized to ensure critical functions are operational as soon as possible.
Phases and personal activitiesEdit
Emergency management consists of five phases: prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.http://www.fema.gov/mission-areas
PreventionEdit
Prevention was recently added to the phases of emergency management. It focuses on preventing the human hazard, primarily from potential natural disasters or terrorist attacks. Preventive measures are taken on both the domestic and international levels, designed to provide permanent protection from disasters. Not all disasters, particularly natural disasters, can be prevented, but the risk of loss of life and injury can be mitigated with good evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards. In January 2005, 167 Governments adopted a 10-year global plan for natural disaster risk reduction called theHyogo Framework.
Preventing or reducing the impacts of disasters on our communities is a key focus for emergency management efforts today. Prevention and mitigation also help reduce the financial costs of disaster response and recovery. Public Safety Canada is working with provincial and territorial governments and stakeholders to promote disaster prevention and mitigation using a risk-based and all-hazards approach. In 2008, Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministers endorsed a National Disaster Mitigation Strategy.
MitigationEdit
Preventive or mitigation measures take different forms for different types of disasters. In earthquake prone areas, these preventive measures might include structural changes such as the installation of anearthquake valve to instantly shut off the natural gas supply, seismic retrofits of property, and the securing of items inside a building. The latter may include the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the walls, and the addition of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas, houses can be built on poles/stilts. In areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation of a generator ensures continuation of electrical service. The construction of storm cellars andfallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigative actions.
On a national level, governments might implement large scale mitigation measures. After the monsoon floods of 2010, the Punjab government subsequently constructed 22 'disaster-resilient' model villages, comprising 1885 single-storey homes, together with schools and health centres.[3]
Disaster mitigation measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster occurs.
One of the best known examples of investment in disaster mitigation is the Red River Floodway. The building of the Floodway was a joint provincial/federal undertaking to protect the City of Winnipeg and reduce the impact of flooding in the Red River Basin. It cost $60 million to build in the 1960s. Since then, the floodway has been used over 20 times. Its use during the 1997 Red River Flood alone saved an estimated $6 billion. The Floodway was expanded in 2006 as a joint provincial/federal initiative.
PreparednessEdit
An airport emergency preparedness exercise
Preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when adisaster occurs. This equipment and these procedures can be used to reduce vulnerability to disaster, to mitigate the impacts of a disaster or to respond more efficiently in an emergency. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has set out a basic four-stage vision of preparedness flowing from mitigation to preparedness to response to recovery and back to mitigation in a circular planning process.[4] This circular, overlapping model has been modified by other agencies, taught in emergency class and discussed in academic papers.[5] FEMA also operates a Building Science Branch that develops and produces multi-hazard mitigation guidance that focuses on creating disaster-resilient communities to reduce loss of life and property.[6] FEMA advises citizens to prepare their homes with some emergency essentials in the case that the food distribution lines are interrupted. FEMA has subsequently prepared for this contingency by purchasing hundreds of thousands of freeze dried food emergency meals ready to eat (MRE's) to dispense to the communities where emergency shelter and evacuations are implemented.
Emergency preparedness can be difficult to measure.[7] CDC focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of its public health efforts through a variety of measurement and assessment programs.[8]
Local Emergency Planning CommitteesEdit
Local Emergency Planning Committees(LEPCs) are required by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under theEmergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act to develop an emergency response plan, review the plan at least annually, and provide information about chemicals in the community to local citizens.[9] This emergency preparedness effort focuses on hazards presented by use and storage of extremely hazardous, hazardous and toxic chemicals.[10] Particular requirements of LEPCs include
Identification of facilities and transportation routes of extremely hazardous substancesDescription of emergency response procedures, on and off siteDesignation of a community coordinator and facility emergency coordinator(s) to implement the planOutline of emergency notification proceduresDescription of how to determine the probable affected area and population by releasesDescription of local emergency equipment and facilities and the persons responsible for themOutline of evacuation plansA training program for emergency responders (including schedules)Methods and schedules for exercising emergency response plans
According to the EPA, "Many LEPCs have expanded their activities beyond the requirements of EPCRA, encouraging accident prevention and risk reduction, and addressing homeland security in their communities" and the Agency offers advice on how to evaluate the effectiveness of these committees.[11]
Preparedness measuresEdit
Preparedness measures can take many forms ranging from focusing on individual people, locations or incidents to broader, government-based "all hazard" planning.[12] There are a number of preparedness stages between "all hazard' and individual planning, generally involving some combination of both mitigation and response planning. Business continuity planning encourages businesses to have a Disaster Recovery Plan. Community- and faith-based organizations mitigation efforts promote field response teams and inter-agency planning.[13]
Classroom response kit
School-based response teams cover everything from live shooters to gas leaks and nearby bank robberies.[14] Educational institutions plan for cyberattacks and windstorms.[15] Industry specific guidance exists for horse farms,[16] boat owners[17] and more.
Family preparedness for disaster is fairly unusual. A 2013 survey found that only 19% of American families felt that they were "very prepared" for a disaster.[18] Still, there are many resources available for family disaster planning. The Department of Homeland Security's Ready.gov page includes a Family Emergency Plan Checklist,[19] has a whole webpage devoted to readiness for kids, complete with cartoon-style superheroes,[20]and ran a Thunderclap Campaign in 2014.[21]The Center for Disease Control has a Zombie Apocalypse website.[22]
Kitchen fire extinguisher
Disasters take a variety of forms to includeearthquakes, tsunamis or regular structure fires. That a disaster or emergency is not large scale in terms of population or acreage impacted or duration does not make it any less of a disaster for the people or area impacted and much can be learned about preparedness from so-called small disasters.[23] The Red Cross states that it responds to nearly 70,000 disasters a year, the most common of which is a single family fire.[24]
Items on shelves in basement
Preparedness starts with an individual'severyday life and involves items and training that would be useful in an emergency. What is useful in an emergency is often also useful in everyday life.[25] From personal preparedness, preparedness continues on a continuum through family preparedness, community preparedness and then business, non-profit and governmental preparedness. Some organizations blend these various levels. For example, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement has a webpage on disaster training[26] as well as offering training on basic preparedness such asCardiopulmonary resuscitation and First Aid. Other non-profits such as Team Rubicon bring specific groups of people into disaster preparedness and response operations.[27]FEMA breaks down preparedness into a pyramid, with citizens on the foundational bottom, on top of which rests local government, state government and federal government in that order.[28]
Non-perishable food in cabinet
The basic theme behind preparedness is to be ready for an emergency and there are a number of different variations of being ready based on an assessment of what sort of threats exist. Nonetheless, there is basic guidance for preparedness that is common despite an area's specific dangers. FEMA recommends that everyone have a three-day survival kit for their household.[29] Because individual household sizes and specific needs might vary, FEMA's recommendations are not item specific, but the list includes:
Three-day supply of non-perishable food.Three-day supply of water – one gallon of water per person, per day.Portable, battery-powered radio or television and extra batteries.Flashlight and extra batteries.First aid kit and manual.Sanitation and hygiene items (e.g. toilet paper, menstrual hygiene products).Matches and waterproof container.Whistle.Extra clothing.Kitchen accessories and cooking utensils, including a can opener.Photocopies of credit and identification cards.Cash and coins.Special needs items, such as prescription medications, eyeglasses, contact lens solutions, and hearing aid batteries.Items for infants, such as formula, diapers, bottles, and pacifiers.Other items to meet unique family needs.
Along similar lines, but not exactly the same, CDC has its own list for a proper disaster supply kit.[30]
Water—one gallon per person, per dayFood—nonperishable, easy-to-prepare itemsFlashlightBattery powered or hand crank radio (NOAA Weather Radio, if possible)Extra batteriesFirst aid kitMedications (7-day supply), other medical supplies, and medical paperwork (e.g., medication list and pertinent medical information)Multipurpose tool (e.g., Swiss army knife)Sanitation and personal hygiene itemsCopies of personal documents (e.g., proof of address, deed/lease to home, passports, birth certificates, and insurance policies)Cell phone with chargersFamily and emergency contact informationExtra cashEmergency blanketMap(s) of the areaExtra set of car keys and house keysManual can opener
Children are a special population when considering Emergency preparedness and many resources are directly focused on supporting them. SAMHSA has list of tips for talking to children during infectious disease outbreaks, to include being a good listener, encouraging children to ask questions and modeling self-care by setting routines, eating healthy meals, getting enough sleep and taking deep breaths to handle stress.[31]FEMA has similar advice, noting that "Disasters can leave children feeling frightened, confused, and insecure" whether a child has experienced it first hand, had it happen to a friend or simply saw it on television.[32] In the same publication, FEMA further notes, "Preparing for disaster helps everyone in the family accept the fact that disasters do happen, and provides an opportunity to identify and collect the resources needed to meet basic needs after disaster. Preparation helps; when people feel prepared, they cope better and so do children."
To help people assess what threats might be in order to augment their emergency supplies or improve their disaster response skills, FEMA has published a booklet called the "Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Guide."[33] (THIRA) This guide, which outlines the THIRA process, emphasizes "whole community involvement," not just governmental agencies, in preparedness efforts. In this guide, FEMA breaks down hazards into three categories: Natural, technological and human caused and notes that each hazard should be assessed for both its likelihood and its significance. According to FEMA, "Communities should consider only those threats and hazards that could plausibly occur" and "Communities should consider only those threats and hazards that would have a significant effect on them." To develop threat and hazard context descriptions, communities should take into account the time, place, and conditions in which threats or hazards might occur.
Not all preparedness efforts and discussions involve the government or established NGOs like the Red Cross. Emergency preparation discussions are active on the internet, with many blogs and websites dedicated to discussing various aspects of preparedness. On-line sales of items such as survival food, medical supplies and heirloom seeds allow people to stock basements with cases of food and drinks with 25 year shelf lives, sophisticated medical kits and seeds that are guaranteed to sprout even after years of storage.[34]
One group of people who put a lot of effort in disaster preparations is called Doomsday Preppers. This subset of preparedness-minded people often share a belief that the FEMA or Red Cross emergency preparation suggestions and training are not extensive enough. Sometimes called survivalists, Doomsday Preppers are often preparing for The End Of The World As We Know It, abbreviated as TEOTWAWKI. With a motto some have that "The Future Belongs to those who Prepare," this Preparedness subset has its own set of Murphy's Rules,[35] including "Rule Number 1: Food, you still don't have enough" and "Rule Number 26: People who thought the Government would save them, found out that it didn't."
Not all emergency preparation efforts revolve around food, guns and shelters, though these items help address the needs in the bottom two sections of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The American Preppers Network[36] has an extensive list of items that might be useful in less apparent ways than a first aid kid or help add 'fun' to challenging times. These items include:
Books and magazinesArts and crafts paintingChildren's entertainmentCrayons and coloring booksNotebooks and writing suppliesNuts, bolts, screws, nails, etc.Religious materialSporting equipment, card games and board gamesPosters and banners creating awareness
Emergency preparedness goes beyond immediate family members. For many people, pets are an integral part of their families and emergency preparation advice includes them as well. It is not unknown for pet owners to die while trying to rescue their pets from a fire or from drowning.[37] CDC's Disaster Supply Checklist for Pets includes:[30]
Food and water for at least 3 days for each pet; bowls, and a manual can opener.Depending on the pet you may need a litter box, paper towels, plastic trash bags, grooming items, and/or household bleach.Medications and medical records stored in a waterproof container.First aid kit with a pet first aid book.Sturdy leash, harness, and carrier to transport pet safely. A carrier should be large enough for the animal to stand comfortably, turn around, and lie down. Your pet may have to stay in the carrier for several hours.Pet toys and the pet's bed, if you can easily take it, to reduce stress.Current photos and descriptions of your pets to help others identify them in case you and your pets become separated, and to prove that they are yours.Information on feeding schedules, medical conditions, behavior problems, and the name and telephone number of your veterinarian in case you have to board your pets or place them in foster care.
Emergency preparedness also includes more than physical items and skill-specific training. Psychological preparedness is also a type of emergency preparedness and specific mental health preparedness resources are offered for mental health professionals by organizations such as the Red Cross.[24] These mental health preparedness resources are designed to support both community members affected by a disaster and the disaster workers serving them. CDC has a website devoted to coping with a disaster or traumatic event.[38] After such an event, the CDC, through theSubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), suggests that people seek psychological help when they exhibit symptoms such as excessive worry, crying frequently, an increase in irritability, anger, and frequent arguing, wanting to be alone most of the time, feeling anxious or fearful, overwhelmed by sadness, confused, having trouble thinking clearly and concentrating, and difficulty making decisions, increased alcohol and/or substance use, increased physical (aches, pains) complaints such as headaches and trouble with "nerves."
Sometimes emergency supplies are kept in what is called a Bug-out bag. While FEMA does not actually use the term "Bug out bag," calling it instead some variation of a "Go Kit," the idea of having emergency items in a quickly accessible place is common to both FEMA and CDC, though on-line discussions of what items a "bug out bag" should include sometimes cover items such as firearms and great knives that are not specifically suggested by FEMA or CDC.[39] The theory behind a "bug out bag" is that emergency preparations should include the possibility ofEmergency evacuation. Whether fleeing a burning building or hastily packing a car to escape an impending hurricane, flood or dangerous chemical release, rapid departure from a home or workplace environment is always a possibility and FEMA suggests having a Family Emergency Plan for such occasions.[40] Because family members may not be together when disaster strikes, this plan should include reliable contact information for friends or relatives who live outside of what would be the disaster area for household members to notify they are safe or otherwise communicate with each other. Along with the contact information, FEMA suggests having well-understood local gathering points if a house must be evacuated quickly to avoid the dangers of re-reentering a burning home.[41] Family and emergency contact information should be printed on cards and put in each family member's backpack or wallet. If family members spend a significant amount of time in a specific location, such as at work or school, FEMA suggests learning the emergency preparation plans for those places.[40] FEMA has a specific form, in English and in Spanish, to help people put together these emergency plans, though it lacks lines for email contact information.[40]
Like children, people with disabilities and other special needs have special emergency preparation needs. While "disability" has a specific meaning for specific organizations such as collecting Social Security benefits,[42]for the purposes of emergency preparedness, the Red Cross uses the term in a broader sense to include people with physical, medical, sensor or cognitive disabilities or the elderly and other special needs populations.[43] Depending on the particular disability, specific emergency preparations might be required. FEMA's suggestions for people with disabilities includes having copies of prescriptions, charging devices for medical devices such as motorized wheel chairs and a week's supply of medication readily available LINK or in a "go stay kit."[44] In some instances, lack of competency in English may lead to special preparation requirements and communication efforts for both individuals and responders.[45]
FEMA notes that long term power outages can cause damage beyond the original disaster that can be mitigated with emergency generators or other power sources to provide an Emergency power system.[46]The United States Department of Energystates that 'homeowners, business owners, and local leaders may have to take an active role in dealing with energy disruptions on their own."[47] This active role may include installing or other procuring generators that are either portable or permanently mounted and run on fuels such as propane or natural gas[48] or gasoline.[49] Concerns about carbon monoxide poisoning, electrocution, flooding, fuel storage and fire lead even small property owners to consider professional installation and maintenance.[46] Major institutions like hospitals, military bases and educational institutions often have or are considering extensive backup power systems.[50] Instead of, or in addition to, fuel-based power systems, solar, wind and other alternative power sources may be used.[51] Standalone batteries, large or small, are also used to provide backup charging for electrical systems and devices ranging from emergency lights to computers to cell phones.[52]
Emergency preparedness does not stop at home or at school.[53] The United States Department of Health and Human Servicesaddresses specific emergency preparedness issues hospitals may have to respond to, including maintaining a safe temperature, providing adequate electricity for life support systems and even carrying out evacuations under extreme circumstances.[54] FEMA encourages all businesses to have businesses to have an emergency response plan[55] and the Small Business Administration specifically advises small business owners to also focus emergency preparedness and provides a variety of different worksheets and resources.[56]
FEMA cautions that emergencies happen while people are travelling as well[57] and provides guidance around emergency preparedness for a range travelers to include commuters,[58] Commuter Emergency Planand holiday travelers.[59] In particular, Ready.gov has a number of emergency preparations specifically designed for people with cars.[60] These preparations include having a full gas tank, maintaining adequate windshield wiper fluid and other basic car maintenance tips. Items specific to an emergency include:
Jumper cables: might want to include flares or reflective triangleFlashlights, to include extra batteries (batteries have less power in colder weather)First Aid Kit, to include any necessary medications, baby formula and diapers if caring for small childrenNon-perishable food such as canned food (be alert to liquids freezing in colder weather), and protein rich foods like nuts and energy barsManual can openerAt least 1 gallon of water per person a day for at least 3 days (be alert to hazards of frozen water and resultant container rupture)Basic toolkit: pliers, wrench, screwdriverPet supplies: food and waterRadio: battery or hand crankedFor snowy areas: cat litter or sand for better tire traction; shovel; ice scraper; warm clothes, gloves, hat, sturdy boots, jacket and an extra change of clothesBlankets or sleeping bagsCharged Cell Phone: and car charger
In addition to emergency supplies and training for various situations, FEMA offers advice on how to mitigate disasters. The Agency gives instructions on how to retrofit a home to minimize hazards from a Flood, to include installing a Backflow prevention device, anchoring fuel tanks and relocating electrical panels.[61]
Marked gas shuttoff
Given the explosive danger posed by natural gas leaks, Ready.gov states unequivocally that "It is vital that all household members know how to shut off natural gas" and that property owners must ensure they have any special tools needed for their particular gas hookups. Ready.gov also notes that "It is wise to teach all responsible household members where and how to shut off the electricity," cautioning that individual circuits should be shut off before the main circuit. Ready.gov further states that "It is vital that all household members learn how to shut off the water at the main house valve" and cautions that the possibility that rusty valves might require replacement.[62]
ResponseEdit
The response phase of an emergency may commence with Search and Rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and organizations. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when many organizations respond and local emergency management agency (LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or diminished by the disaster itself. The National Response Framework is a United States government publication that explains responsibilities and expectations of government officials at the local, state, federal, and tribal levels. It provides guidance on Emergency Support Functions that may be integrated in whole or parts to aid in the response and recovery process.
On a personal level the response can take the shape either of a shelter in place or anevacuation.
Evacuation sign
In a shelter-in-place scenario, a family would be prepared to fend for themselves in their home for many days without any form of outside support. In an evacuation, a family leaves the area by automobile or other mode of transportation, taking with them the maximum amount of supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter. If mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation on foot would ideally include carrying at least three days of supplies and rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets.
Donations are often sought during this period, especially for large disasters that overwhelm local capacity. Due to efficiencies of scale,money is often the most cost-effective donation if fraud is avoided. Money is also the most flexible, and if goods are sourced locally then transportation is minimized and the local economy is boosted. Some donors prefer to send gifts in kind, however these items can end up creating issues, rather than helping. One innovation by Occupy Sandy volunteers is to use a donation registry, where families and businesses impacted by the disaster can make specific requests, which remote donors can purchase directly via a web site.
Medical considerations will vary greatly based on the type of disaster and secondary effects. Survivors may sustain a multitude of injuries to include lacerations, burns, near drowning, or crush syndrome.
RecoveryEdit
The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. The immediate goal of the recovery phase is to bring the affected area back to normalcy as quickly as possible. During reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the property.
The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severeepidemics and may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home. Planners for these events usually buy bulkfoods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life. A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin pills, whole-mealwheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil.[63] One should add vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.
As a profession
Within other professions
International organizations
National organizationsEdit
AustraliaEdit
Main article: Emergency Management in Australia
Natural disasters are part of life in Australia. Heatwaves have killed more Australians than any other type of natural disaster in the 20th century. Australia's emergency management processes embrace the concept of the prepared community. The principal government agency in achieving this isEmergency Management Australia.
CanadaEdit
Public Safety Canada is Canada's national emergency management agency. Each province is required to have both legislation for dealing with emergencies, and provincial emergency management agencies, typically called "Emergency Measures Organizations" (EMO). Public Safety Canada co-ordinates and supports the efforts of federal organizations as well as other levels of government, first responders, community groups, the private sector, and other nations. The Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Act defines the powers, duties and functions of PS are outlined. Other acts are specific to individual fields such as corrections, law enforcement, and national security.
GermanyEdit
In Germany the Federal Government controls the German Katastrophenschutz (disaster relief), the Technisches Hilfswerk (Federal Agency for Technical Relief, THW), and theZivilschutz (civil protection) programs coordinated by the Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance. Local fire department units, the German Armed Forces (Bundeswehr), the German Federal Police and the 16 state police forces (Länderpolizei) are also deployed during disaster relief operations.
There are several private organizations in Germany that also deal with emergency relief. Among these are the German Red Cross,Johanniter-Unfall-Hilfe (the German equivalent of the St. John Ambulance), the Malteser-Hilfsdienst, and the Arbeiter-Samariter-Bund. As of 2006, there is a program of study at the University of Bonn leading to the degree "Master in Disaster Prevention and Risk Governance"[88] As a support function radio amateurs provide additional emergency communication networks with frequent trainings.
IndiaEdit
A protective wall built on the shore of the coastal town of Kalpakkam, in aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
The National Disaster Management Authorityis the primary government agency responsible for planning and capacity-building for disaster relief. Its emphasis is primarily on strategic risk management and mitigation, as well as developing policies and planning.[89] TheNational Institute of Disaster Management is a policy think-tank and training institution for developing guidelines and training programs for mitigating disasters and managing crisis response.
The National Disaster Response Force is the government agency primarily responsible for emergency management during natural andman-made disasters, with specialized skills in search, rescue and rehabilitation.[90] The Ministry of Science and Technology also contains an agency that brings the expertise of earth scientists and meteorologists to emergency management. The Indian Armed Forces also plays an important role in the rescue/recovery operations after disasters.
Aniruddha's Academy of Disaster Management (ACDM) is a non-profit organization in Mumbai, India with 'disaster management' as its principal objective.
MalaysiaEdit
In Malaysia, The National Security Council has the responsibility to handle emergency and disaster events. Ministry of Home Affairs Malaysia, Ministry of Health Malaysia andMinistry of Housing, Urban Wellbeing and Local Government Malaysia are also having responsibility in managing emergency. Several agencies are involved in emergency managements are Royal Malaysian Police,Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department,Malaysian Civil Defence Force, Ministry of Health Malaysia and Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency. There were also some voluntary organisation who involved themselves in emergency/ disaster management such as St. John Ambulance of Malaysia, Malaysian Red Crescent Societyand so on.
New ZealandEdit
In New Zealand, depending on the scope of the emergency/disaster, responsibility may be handled at either the local or national level. Within each region, local governments are organized into 16 Civil Defence Emergency Management Groups (CMGs). If local arrangements are overwhelmed, pre-existing mutual-support arrangements are activated. Central government has the authority to coordinate the response through the National Crisis Management Centre (NCMC), operated by the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM). These structures are defined by regulation,[91] and explained in The Guide to the National Civil Defence Emergency Management Plan 2006, roughly equivalent to the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency's National Response Framework.
New Zealand uses unique terminology for emergency management. Emergency management is rarely used, many government publications retaining the use of the term civil defence.[92][93][94] For example, the Minister of Civil Defence is responsible for the MCDEM. Civil Defence Emergency Management is a term in its own right, defined by statute.[95]And disaster rarely appears in official publications, emergency and incident being the preferred terms,[96] with the term event also being used. For example, publications refer to the Canterbury Snow Event 2002.[97]
"4Rs" is the emergency management cycle used in New Zealand, its four phases are known as:[98]
Reduction = MitigationReadiness = PreparednessResponseRecovery
PakistanEdit
Disaster management in Pakistan revolves around flood disasters focusing on rescue and relief. There is a dearth of knowledge and information about hazard identification, risk assessment and management, and disaster preparedness. Disaster management, development planning and environmental management institutions operate in isolation with no integrated planning, there being no central authority for integrated disaster management. State-level measures are heavily tilted towards structural aspects.
RussiaEdit
In Russia, the Ministry of Emergency Situations (EMERCOM) is engaged in fire fighting, civil defense, and search and rescueafter both natural and human-made disasters.
SomaliaEdit
In Somalia, the Federal Governmentannounced in May 2013 that the Cabinet had approved draft legislation on a new Somali Disaster Management Agency (SDMA), which had originally been proposed by the Ministry of Interior. According to the Prime Minister's Media Office, the SDMA will lead and coordinate the government's response to various natural disasters. It is part of a broader effort by the federal authorities to re-establish national institutions. The Federal Parliament is now expected to deliberate on the proposed bill for endorsement after any amendments.[99]
The NetherlandsEdit
In the Netherlands the Ministry of Security and Justice is responsible for emergency preparedness and emergency management on a national level and operates a national crisis centre (NCC). The country is divided into 25 safety regions (veiligheidsregio). In a safety region, there are four components: the regional fire department, the regional department for medical care(ambulances and psycho-sociological care etc.), the regional dispatch and a section for risk- and crisis management. The regional dispatch operates for police, fire department and the regional medical care. The dispatch has all these three services combined into one dispatch for the best multi-coordinated response to an incident or an emergency. And also facilitates in information management, emergency communication and care of citizens. These services are the main structure for a response to an emergency. It can happen that, for a specific emergency, the co-operation with an other service is needed, for instance theMinistry of Defence, water board(s) orRijkswaterstaat. The veiligheidsregio can integrate these other services into their structure by adding them to specific conferences on operational or administrative level.
All regions operate according to theCoordinated Regional Incident Managementsystem.
United KingdomEdit
Following the 2000 fuel protests and severe flooding that same year, as well as the foot-and-mouth crisis in 2001, the United Kingdompassed the Civil Contingencies Act 2004(CCA). The CCA defined some organisations as Category 1 and 2 Responders, setting responsibilities regarding emergency preparedness and response. It is managed by the Civil Contingencies Secretariat through Regional Resilience Forums and local authorities.
Disaster Management training is generally conducted at the local level, and consolidated through professional courses that can be taken at the Emergency Planning College. Diplomas, undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications can be gained at universities throughout the country. The Institute of Emergency Management is a charity, established in 1996, providing consulting services for the government, media and commercial sectors. There are a number of professional societies for Emergency Planners including the Emergency Planning Society[100] and the Institute of Civil Protection and Emergency Management.[101]
One of the largest emergency exercises in the UK was carried out on 20 May 2007 nearBelfast, Northern Ireland: a simulated plane crash-landing at Belfast International Airport. Staff from five hospitals and three airports participated in the drill, and almost 150 international observers assessed its effectiveness.[102]
United StatesEdit
Disaster management in the United States has utilized the functional All-Hazards approach for over 20 years, in which managers develop processes (such as communication & warning or sheltering) rather than developing single-hazard or threat focused plans (e.g., a tornado plan). Processes are then mapped to specific hazards or threats, with the manager looking for gaps, overlaps, and conflicts between processes.
Given these notions, emergency managers must identify, contemplate, and assess possible man-made threats and natural threats that may affect their respective locales.[103] Because of geographical differences throughout the nation, a variety of different threats affect communities among the states. Thus, although similarities may exist, no two emergency plans will be completely identical. Additionally, each locale has different resources and capacities (e.g., budgets, personnel, equipment, etc.) for dealing with emergencies.[104] Each individual community must craft its own unique emergency plan that addresses potential threats that are specific to the locality.[105]
This creates a plan more resilient to unique events because all common processes are defined, and encourages planning done by the stakeholders who are closer to the individual processes, such as a traffic management plan written by public works director. This type of planning can lead to conflict with non-emergency management regulatory bodies, which require development of hazard/threat specific plans, such as development of specific H1N1 flu plans and terrorism-specific plans.
In the United States, all disasters are initially local, with local authorities, with usually a police, fire, or EMS agency, taking charge. Many local municipalities may also have a separate dedicated office of emergency management (OEM), along with personnel and equipment. If the event becomes overwhelming to local government, state emergency management (the primary government structure of the United States) becomes the controlling emergency management agency. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), part of theDepartment of Homeland Security (DHS), is lead federal agency for emergency management. The United States and its territories are broken down into ten regions for FEMA's emergency management purposes. FEMA supports, but does not override, state authority.
The Citizen Corps is an organization of volunteer service programs, administered locally and coordinated nationally by DHS, which seek to mitigate disasters and prepare the population for emergency response through public education, training, and outreach. Most disaster response is carried out by volunteer organizations. In the US, theRed Cross is chartered by Congress to coordinate disaster response services, including typically being the lead agency handling shelter and feeding of evacuees. Religious organizations, with their ability to provide volunteers quickly, are usually integral during the response process. The largest being the Salvation Army,[106] with a primary focus on chaplaincy and rebuilding, andSouthern Baptists who focus on food preparation and distribution,[107] as well as cleaning up after floods and fires, chaplaincy, mobile shower units, chainsaw crews and more. With over 65,000 trained volunteers Southern Baptist Disaster Relief is one of the largest disaster relief organizations in the US.[108] Similar services are also provided by Methodist Relief Services, the Lutherans, andSamaritan's Purse. Unaffiliated volunteers show up at most large disasters. To prevent abuse by criminals and for the safety of the volunteers, procedures have been implemented within most response agencies to manage and effectively use these 'SUVs' (Spontaneous Unaffiliated Volunteers).[109]
The US Congress established the Center for Excellence in Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (COE) as the principal agency to promote disaster preparedness in the Asia-Pacific region.
The National Tribal Emergency Management Council (NEMC) is a non-profit educational organization developed for Tribal organizations to share information and best practices, as well as discussing issues regarding public health and safety, emergency management and homeland security, affecting those under Indian sovereignty. NTMC is organized into Regions, based on the FEMA 10 region system. NTMC was founded by the Northwest Tribal Emergency Management Council (NWTEMC), a consortium of 29 Tribal Nations and Villages in Washington, Idaho, Oregon and Alaska.
If a disaster or emergency is declared to be terror related or an "Incident of National Significance", the Secretary of Homeland Security will initiate the National Response Framework (NRF). The NRF allows the integration of federal resources with local, country, state, or tribal entities, with management of those resources to be handled at the lowest possible level, utilizing the National Incident Management System(NIMS).
FEMA's Emergency Management InstituteEdit
See also: Emergency Management Institute
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Emergency Management Institute's Main Campus in Emmitsburg, Maryland
The Emergency Management Institute (EMI) serves as the national focal point for the development and delivery of emergency management training to enhance the capabilities of state, territorial, local, and tribal government officials; volunteer organizations; FEMA's disaster workforce; other Federal agencies; and the public and private sectors to minimize the impact of disasters andemergencies on the American public. EMI curricula are structured to meet the needs of this diverse audience with an emphasis on separate organizations working together in all-hazards emergencies to save lives and protect property. Particular emphasis is placed on governing doctrine such as theNational Response Framework (NRF),National Incident Management System(NIMS), and the National Preparedness Guidelines.[110] EMI is fully accredited by the International Association for Continuing Education and Training (IACET) and theAmerican Council on Education (ACE).[111]
Approximately 5,500 participants attend resident courses each year while 100,000 individuals participate in non-resident programs sponsored by EMI and conducted by state emergency management agencies under cooperative agreements with FEMA. Another 150,000 individuals participate in EMI-supported exercises, and approximately 1,000 individuals participate in the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEPP).[112]
The independent study program at EMI consists of free courses offered to United States citizens in Comprehensive Emergency Management techniques.[113] Course IS-1 is entitled "Emergency Manager: An Orientation to the Position" and provides background information on FEMA and the role of emergency managers in agency and volunteer organization coordination. The EMI Independent Study (IS) Program, a Web-based distance learning program open to the public, delivered extensive online training with approximately 200 courses and trained more than 2.8 million individuals. The EMI IS Web site receives 2.5 to 3 million visitors a day.[114]
See also
References
Further reading
External links